Nháwwá

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Phonology.

Consonants.

IPA	Spelling
/p t k ʔ/	b d g
/pʰ tʰ kʰ/	p t k
/t͡θ t͡s t͡ɬ t͡ʃ/	dθ ds dl dš
/t͡θʰ t͡sʰ t͡ɬʰ t͡ʃʰ/	tθ ts tl tš
/θ s ɬ ʃ x h/	θ s l š x h
/m n ŋ/	m n ng
/mʰ nʰ ŋʰ/	mh nh ngh
/ɾ/	r
/j w/	y w

Vowels.

Low tone
/ì ù/	i u
/ə̀/	e
/à/	a
High tone
/í ú/	í ú
/ə́/	é
/á/	á

Phonotactics.

CVC

C = any consonant
V = any vowel

Nouns.

Morphemes.

[Possessor + Root + Root's extension + (Class + Number)]

Class and number.

Animate	Singular	-wá	gaθwá	'hand'
	Plural	-té	gaθté	'hands'
Inanimate		-né	genké ← *gek-né	'stone(s)'

Possessor.

Alienable.

	Singular			Plural
1.	mi-	mikatané	'my house'	ngi-	ngikatané	'our house'
2.	θe-	θekatané	'thy house'	se-	sekatané	'your house'
3.	i-	ikatané	'his/her/its house'	li-	likatané	'their house'

Unalienable.

	Singular			Plural
1.	min-	minkatané	'my hand'	ngin-	nginkatané	'our hand'
2.	θen-	θenkatané	'thy hand'	sen-	senkatané	'your hand'
3.	in-	inkatané	'his/her/its hand'	lin-	linkatané	'their hand'

Verbs.

Morphemes.

 [Instrumentality + Object + Subject + (Root + Voice) + Root's extension(s) + Tense + Aspect + Evidentiality + Affirmativity]

Instrumentality.

mangém - I am speaking

ba-	'with teeth, chin, mouth'	bamangém [pàmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with mouth'
sú-	'with heat, fire'	súmangém [súmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with fire'
ma-	'with the hand'	mamangém [màmaŋə́m̀]	'I am speaking with hand'
tše-	'with the nose, lips, front'	tšemangém [t͡ʃʰə̀màŋə́m]	'I am speaking with front'
nú-	'verbally'	númangém [númàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with words'
tah-	'with the buttocks, rear'	tahmangém [tàhmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with the buttocks'
geh-	'with cold'	gehmangém [kə̀hmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with cold'
pah-	'with the foot, in a violent motion'	pahmangém [pʰàhmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with the foot'
bí-	'with the mind, mental activity'	bímangém [pímàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with the mind'
du-	'with the finger'	dumangém [tùmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with the finger'
tθé-	'with the head'	tθémangém [t͡θʰə́màŋə́m]	'I am speaking with the head'
láh-	'with the body'	láhmangém [láhmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with the body'
θí-	'with swinging motion'	θímangém [θímàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with swinging motion'
wé-	'with water'	wémangém [wə́màŋə́m]	'I am speaking with water'
ngu-	'with pulling, pushing'	ngumangém [ŋùmàŋə́m]	'I am speaking with pulling, pushing'

Object.

	Singular		Plural
1.	ma-	me	man-	us
2.	ší-	thee	tša-	you
3.	lu-	him/her/it	wi-	them

Subject.

	Singular		Plural
1.	mé-	I	mén-	we
2.	sú-	thou	tsa-	you
3.	ni-	he/she/it	ne-	they

Voice.

	Performative			Causative
1. Active	-	-yád [-ját]	to see	-ra-	-yárad [-jáɾàt]	to show
2. Reflexive	-sí-	-yásíd [-jásít]	to see self	-ngi-	-yángid [-jáŋìt]	to shown self
3. Cooperative	-lé-	-yáléd [-jálə́t]	to see together	-mú-	-yámúd [-jámút]	to show together
4. Reciprocal	-kú-	-yákúd [-jákʰút]	to see mutually	-tsá-	-yátsád [-ját͡sʰát]	to show mutually

Root's extensions.

Root's extensions are postpositions and secondary verbs (also modal particles).

Tense.

Past remote	-ál-	-yádál [-játáɬ]	to see (long ago)
Past proper	-ár-	-yádár [-játáɾ]	to see (recently)
Non-past	-	-yád [-ját]	to see

Aspect.

Imperfective	-	-yád [-ját]	to see (action is persisting)
Iterative	-yá-	-yádyá [-játjá]	to see many times
Perfective	-tu	-yádtu [-játtʰù]	to see (action is performed)

Evidentiality.

Direct	-a	-yáda [-játà]	to see [speaker has direct evidence, probably visual]
Nonvisual	-gi	-yádgi [-játkì]	to see [speaker felt the sensation]
Inferential	-rú	-yádrú [-játɾú]	to see [speaker saw circumstantial evidence]
Reportative	-mi	-yádmi [-játmì]	to see [speaker is reporting what was told]

Affirmativity.

Affirmative	-	-yád [-ját]	to see
Negative	-né	-yádné [-játnə́]	not to see

Gerund.

le-...-(n)é

leyándé [ɬə̀jántə́]

seeing

Adjectives and adverbs.

• Verbal encoding of adjectives
  
• Locational comparative constructions
• No degrees of comparison
• Intensive particles
  
• Adverbs are the same as adjectives

Numerals.

Cardinal numerals.

1.	ér [ə́ɾ]
2.	ruá [ɾùʔá]
3.	θana [θànà]
4.	dlanga [t͡ɬàŋà]
5.	ténge [tʰə́ŋə́]
6.	téngér [tʰə́ŋə́ɾ]
7.	téngruá [tʰə́ŋɾùʔá]
8.	téngθana [tʰə́ŋθànà]
9.	téngdlanga [tʰə́ŋt͡ɬàŋà]
10.	kárma [kʰáɾmà]
11.	kárma ér [kʰáɾmà ə́ɾ]
20.	getlem [kə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m]
21.	getlem ér [kə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m ə́ɾ]
100.	tenggetlem [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m]
101.	tenggetlem ér [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m ə́ɾ]
120.	tenggetlem getlem [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m kə̀t͡ɬə̀m]
121.	tenggetlem getlem ér [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m kə̀t͡ɬə̀m ə́ɾ]
200.	tértem [tʰə́ɾtʰə̀m]
1.000.	tengtértem [tʰə́ŋtʰə́ɾtʰə̀m]
10.000.	miryás [mìɾjás]
100.000.	kárma miryás [kʰáɾmà mìɾjás]

Derived numerals.

	Ordinal	Distributive	Multiplicative	Ranking	Adverbial
1.	értá [ə́ɾtʰá]	érér [ə́ɾə́ɾ]	érkadš [ə́ɾkʰàt͡ʃ]	érmín [ə́ɾmín]	érku [ə́ɾkʰù]

Pronouns.

Personal pronouns.

		Singular	Plural
1.		mé	mén
2.		sú	tsa
3.	Animate	niwá	newá
	Inanimate	ni	ne

Demonstrative pronouns.

	Definite proper		Definite distant		Indefinite
Place	sí	here	dé	there	šémi	somewhere
Source	adsíd	from here	addéd	from there	adšémid	from somewhere
Purpose direction	dasíd	to here	dadéd	to there, so far	dašémid	to somewhere
Path	síku	this way	déku	that way	šémiku	some way
Time	sítlam	now	détlam	then	šémitlam	anywhere
Method	síxad	in this way	déxad	in that way	šémixad	in some way
Quantity	sílah	so much
Qualify	símak	like this here	démak	like that	šémimak	like something
Reason	sínyár (← *sí-ni-ár)	for this reason	dényár	for that reason	šémiyár	for some reason

Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns.

	Interrogative / Relative		Indefinite		Unlimited
Animate being	kas	who ? which ?	kasmi	someone	kaskuli	anyone
Inanimate object	kay	what ? which ?	kaymi	something	kaykuli	anything
Place	kéy	where ?	kéymi	somewhere	kéykuli	anywhere
Source	adkad	whence ?	adkadmi	from somewhere	adkadkuli	from anywhere
Purpose direction	dakad	whither ?	dakadmi	to somewhere	dakadkuli	to anywhere
Path	kamiku	which way ?	kamikumi	via some way	kamikukuli	via any way
Time	katlam	when ?	katlammi	once	katlamkuli	ever
Method	kaxad	how ?	kaxandi (← *kaxad-mi)	somehow	kaxadkuli	anyhow
Quantity	kalah	how much ?	kalahmi	somehow much	kalahkuli	anyhow much
Qualify	kamak	which one ?	kamanki (← *kamak-mi)	some	kamakkuli	any
Reason	kanyár	why ?

Negative, universal and alternative pronouns.

	Negative		Universal		Alternative
Animate being	nekas	nobody	kaswad	every	kasdi	anyone else
Inanimate object	nekay	nothing	mahwad	every, all	kaydi	anything else
Place	nekéy	nowhere	mahed	everywhere	kéydi	elswhere
Source	adnekad	from nowhere	admahed	from everywhere	adkéydi	from elswhere
Purpose direction	danekad	to nowhere	damahed	to everywhere	dakéydi	to elswhere
Path	nekamiku	through no way	mahedku	through all ways	kamikudi	which way else
Time	nekatlam	never	mahtlam	always	katlamkudi	when else
Method	nekaxad	nohow	mahxad	in all methods	kaxaddi	otherwise
Quantity	nekalah	nothing	mahkalah	otherwise than so many
Quality	nekamak	neuter, indistinct	mahmak	any	kamakdi	other

Postpositions.

Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals.

es [ə̀s]	in, inside
ades [ʔàtə̀s]	from inside
daes [tàʔə̀s]	to inside
xa [xà]	on
adxa [ʔàtxà]	from on
daax [tàʔàx]	to on
ngúm [ŋúm]	above
adngúm [ʔàtŋúm]	from above
dangúm [dàŋúm]	to above
tsug [t͡sʰùk]	under
adtsug [àtt͡sùk]	from under
datsug [tàt͡sʰùk]	to under
bek [pə̀kʰ]	beside
adbek [ʔàtpə̀kʰ]	from beside
dabek [tàpə̀kʰ]	to beside
úl [ʔúɬ]	away
adúl [àtúɬ]	from away
daúl [tàʔúɬ]	to away
múres [múɾə̀s]	between
admúres [àtmúɾə̀s]	from between
damúres [tàmúɾə̀s]	to between
káh [kʰáh]	behind
adkáh [ʔàtkʰáh]	from behind
dakáh [tàkʰáh]	to behind
ux [ʔùx]	out
adux [ʔàtùx]	from out
daux [tàʔùx]	to out
tsíng [t͡sʰíŋ]	around
adtsíng [ʔàtt͡sʰíŋ]	from around
datsíng [tàt͡sʰíŋ]	to around
méd [mə́t]	before, opposite to
adméd [ʔàtmə́t]	from before, from opposite to
daméd [tàmə́t]	to before, to opposite to
tlámes [t͡ɬʰámə̀s]	during, in time of
adtlámes [ʔàtt͡ɬʰámə̀s]	from time of
datlámes [tàt͡ɬámə̀s]	to time of
pu [pʰù]	after
adpu [ʔàtpʰù]	from after
dapu [tàpʰù]	to after

Other prepositions.

Companion, attributive object	sa [sà]	with
Instrument	ná [ná]	by
Destiny	ár [ʔáɾ]	for
Purpose	da [tà]	to
Source	ad [ʔàt]	from
Lack	ber [pə̀ɾ]	without
Alternative	túles [túɬə̀s]	instead
Contrary	axméd [ʔàxmə̀t]	against
Resistance	súm [súm]	despite, though
Stylization	nghán [ŋʰán]	along to, according to

Particles

Conjunctions.

Paratactical conjunctions
Copulative	ke [kʰə̀]	and
Conjunctive	dla [t͡ɬà]	also
Disjunctive	úm [úm]	or
Contrastive, exceptional	xá [xá]	but
Consequentive	ná [ná]	so
Hypotactical conjunctions
nhit [nʰìtʰ]		to, for
θuru [θùɾù]		althought
puta [pʰùtʰà]		because
pi [pʰì]		if
etla [ʔə̀t͡ɬà]		that, providing

Modifiers.

Restrictive	érke [ə́ɾkʰə̀]	only
Additive	érye [ə́ɾjə̀]	yet

Polarity particles.

Affirmative	da [tà]	yes
Negative	ne [nə̀]	no

Modal particles.

Conditional	watl [wàt͡ɬʰ]	would
Potentional	wák [wákʰ]	may
Eventive	méw [mə́w]	may would
Jussive	tung [tʰùŋ]	should
Imperative	á [á]	!
Prohibitive	ná [ná]
Precative	lúk [ɬúkʰ]	request, please
Desiderative	kéda [kʰə́tà]	want
Hypothetical	rú [ɾú]	perhaps
Dubitative	mís [mís]
Obligative	nhek [nʰə̀kʰ]	must
Permissive	šay [ʃàj]	have
Conative	tlug [t͡ɬʰùk]	try
Necessitative	tuk [tʰùkʰ]	need
Interrogative	θá [θá]	?

Intensifiers.

Weak	lé
Balanced	-
Strong	gá

Word formation

Compounding.

Derivation.

Noun.

Noun to noun.

Diminutive	-kúl-	šánewá [ʃánə̀wá] → šánkúlwá [ʃáŋkúlwá]	daughter → little daughter
Augmentative	-dag-	burné [pùɾnə́] → burdangé [pùɾtàŋə́]	mountain → grand mountain
Contradiction	ne-	mánuwá [mánùwá] → nemánuwá [nə̀mánùwá]	human → non-human
Similarity	-andu-	pukuwá [pʰùkʰùwá] → pukanduwá [pʰùkʰàntùwá]	tree → pseudo-tree
Half	puru-	kuryawá [kʰuɾjàwá] → purukuryawá [pʰùɾùkʰùɾyàwá]	dog → half-dog
Relational abstract	-ansé	hagawá [hàkàwá] → hagansé [hàkànsə́]	brother → brotherhood
Related person	-tšewá	mugewá → mugtšewá [mùkt͡ʃʰə̀wá]	cow → cowman
Related object	-(e)ké	lemxé [ɬə̀mxə́] → lemxeké [ɬə̀mxə̀kʰə́]	meat → muscle
Place	-amé	tékwá [tʰə̀kʰwá] → tékamé [tʰə́kʰàmə́]	fire → campfire
Collective	-wéhé	galené [kàɬə̀nə́] → galewehé [kàɬə̀wə̀hə́]	bone → skeleton

Verb.

Verb to noun.

Agentive	-tšewá	-kuš [-kʰùʃ] → kuštšewá [kʰùʃt͡ʃʰə̀wá]	(to) shoot → shooter
Experiencer, adressee	-adθwá	-túts [-tʰút͡sʰ] → tútsadθwá [tʰút͡sʰàt͡θwá]	(to) teach → learner
Result	-té	-bax [-pàx] → baxté [pàxtə́]	(to) fall → (a) fall
Instance	-yé	-múl [-múɬ] → múlyé [múɬjə́]	(to) speak → speech
Instrument	-ké	-bi [-pì] → biké [pìkʰə́]	(to) beat → hammer
Place	-amé	-gal [-kàɬ] → galamé [kàɬàmə́]	(to) kill → slaughterhouse

Syntax.

Word order.

Main word order is SOV, SOVInt, SOVNeg.

Head position.

The language is right-headed.

Copular verbs.

Translative	-tá [-tʰá]	became
Essive	-ké [-kʰə́]	be
Excessive	-dsén [-t͡sə́n]	cease to be

Onomastics.

Colours.

-šáy- [-ʃáj-]	light
-dum- [-tùm-]	dark
-baya- [-pàjà-]	white
-melu- [-mə̀ɬù-]	black
-karna- [-kʰàɾnà-]	red
-tserwi- [-t͡sʰə̀ɾwì-]	reddish
-rutši- [-ɾùt͡ʃʰì-]	pink
-sandu- [-sàntù-]	blue
-gelu- [-kə̀ɬù-]	green
-ladya- [-ɬàtjà-]	yellow
-balta- [-pàɬtʰà-]	golden
-gutlu- [-kùt͡ɬù-]	silver
-aruwa- [-ʔàɾùwà-]	orange
-dθunka- [-t͡θùŋkà-]	grey
-bugra- [-pùkɾà-]	brown
-sepír- [-sə̀pʰíɾ-]	violet
-tatsya- [-tʰàt͡sʰjà-]	navy blue
-tsíni- [-t͡sʰínì-]	beige

Sides of world.

Direct sides
North	black	meluyé
South	white	bayayé
East	red	karnayé
West	gold	baltayé
Indirect sides
Northeast	red black	lekarnané imeluyé
Northwest	golden black	lebaltané imeluyé
Southeast	red white	lekarnané ibayayé
Southwest	golden white	lebaltané ibayayé

Directions.

tapwá	side
mahté	right
néhpé	left
síndé (← *síd-né)	front
kubné	back
galwá	top
dθahné	bottom
kerdé	center, middle, heart

Body parts.

kubwá [kʰùpwá]	body
šaxawá [ʃàxàwá]	blood
xipwá [xìpʰwá]	skin
lemxé [ɬə̀mxə́]	meat
lemxeké [ɬə̀mxə̀kə́]	muscle
galené [kàɬə̀nə́]	bone
gudgé [kùtkə́]	vertebra
pangé [pʰàŋə́]	spine
galewehé [kàɬə̀wə̀hə́]	skeleton
galwá [kàlwá]	head
pulwá [pʰùlwá]	hair
agwá [ʔàkwá]	eye
tθuré [t͡θʰùɾə́]	ear
wáxé [wáxə́]	moustache
axtewá [ʔaxtʰə̀wá]	mouth
pélwá [pʰə́lwá]	lip
sampé [sàmpʰə́]	beard
buruné [pùɾùnə́]	chin
litšwá [lìt͡ʃʰwá]	cheek
tšexwá [t͡ʃʰə̀xwá]	mandible
manké [màŋkə́]	upper jaw
tsimpé [t͡sʰìmpə́]	tooth
tlakwá [t͡ɬʰàkʰwá]	gum
gelné [kə̀ɬnə́]	tusk
aprewá [ʔàpʰɾə̀wá]	eyebrow
yatšwá [jàt͡ʃʰwá]	front neck
kanké [kàŋkə́]	back neck
gurdé [kuɾtə́]	throat
rahwá [ɾàhwá]	larynx
nháwwá [nʰáwwá]	tongue
halté [hàɬtə́]	palate
gulgé [kùɬkə́]	uvula
ringhwá [ɾìŋʰwá]	vein
tuntuwá [tʰùntʰùwá]	artery
kerdé [kʰə̀ɾtə́]	heart
letšé [ɬə̀t͡ʃʰə́]	lung
bulbé [pùɬpə́]	belly
matšké [màt͡ʃʰkʰə́]	stomach
nhergé [nʰə̀ɾkə́]	kidney
palpé [pʰàɬpʰə́]	spleen
wadré [wàtɾə́]	liver
lugé [ɬùkə́]	gall
timbé [tʰìmpə́]	rib
yušké [jùʃkʰə́]	intestine
tθárké [t͡θʰáɾkʰə́]	skull
mhayné [mʰàjnə́]	brain
gaθwá [kàθwá]	hand
rihmé [ɾìhmə́]	arm, shoulder
tšarmé [t͡ʃʰàɾmə́]	forearm
delmé [tə̀ɬmə̀]	hand palm
kundé [kʰùntə́]	fist
pinté [pʰìntʰə́]	finger
busuké [pùsùkʰə́]	nail
tsurké [t̆͡sʰuɾkʰə́]	claw
genhé [kə̀nʰə́]	knee
mhudé [mʰùtə́]	elbow
relké [ɾə̀ɬkʰə́]	wrist
kinhé [kʰìnʰə́]	nose
tšépé [t͡ʃʰə́pʰə́]	back
tupé [tʰùpʰə́]	foot
penté [pʰə̀ntʰə́]	heel
kulmé [kʰùɬmə́]	gullet
reypé [ɾə̀jpʰə́]	midriff

Kinship.

nghámmá [ŋʰámá]	family
abaté	parents
ammá	mother
abbá	father
tšendewá	child
súlwá	son
šánewá	daughter
gignewéhé	sibling
hagawá	brother
tθesewá	sister
dθúkwá	cousin
dšanghwá	distant relative
úwwá	father's / mother's brother
táwwá	father's / mother's sister
abaté ligignewéhé	father's / mother's sibling
hagasúlwá	brother's / sister's son
hagašánewá	brother's / sister's daughter
gignewéhétšendewá	sibling's child
médabaté	grandparents
médammá	grandmother
médabbá	grandfather
médmédammá	great grandmother
médmédabbá	great grandfather
médtšendewá	grandchild
médsúlwá	grandson
médšánewá	granddaughter
médmédtšendewá	great grandchild
médmédsúlwá	great grandson
médmédšánewá	great granddaughter
adšinwá	grandfather's  / grandmother's brother
tutserwá	grandfather's / grandmother's sister
adšingignewéhé	grandfather's / grandmother's sibling
amatwá	ancestor from maternal line
abatwá	ancestor from fathernal line
kumwá	common ancestor
xatšerwéhé	progeny

Relatives from marriage.

gunsansé	marriage
gunghámmá	family from wife's side
gunwá	wife
haryewá	husband
gunsawá	spouse
abbasawá	father-in-law
ammasawá	mother-in-law
abasaté	parents-in-law
súlsawá	son-in-law
šánesawá	daughter-in-law
tšendesawá	child-in-law
hagasawá	brother-in-law
tθesesawá	sister-in-law
gignesawéhé	sibling-in-law
gundšanghwá	wife's distant relative
haryedšanghwá	husband's distant relative
gunhagagunwá	wife brother's wife
guntθeseharyewá	wife sister's husband
hagagunharyegunwá	husband brother's wife
haryetθeseharyewá	husband sister's husband

Relatives from adoption.

pulabbaswá	stepfather
pulammaswá	stepmother
pulabasaté	stepparents
pulhagasá	stepbrother
pultθesesawá	stepsister
pulgignesawéhé	stepsibling
pultšendesawá	stepchild
pulxatšerwéhé	adopted progeny