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Nháwwá

  1. Nháwwá
    1. Phonology.
      1. Consonants.
      2. Vowels.
      3. Phonotactics.
    2. Nouns.
      1. Morphemes.
      2. Class and number.
      3. Possessor.
        1. Alienable.
        2. Unalienable.
    3. Verbs.
      1. Morphemes.
      2. Instrumentality.
      3. Object.
      4. Subject.
      5. Voice.
      6. Root's extensions.
      7. Tense.
      8. Aspect.
      9. Evidentiality.
      10. Affirmativity.
      11. Gerund.
    4. Adjectives and adverbs.
    5. Numerals.
      1. Cardinal numerals.
      2. Derived numerals.
    6. Pronouns.
      1. Personal pronouns.
      2. Demonstrative pronouns.
      3. Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns.
      4. Negative, universal and alternative pronouns.
    7. Postpositions.
      1. Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals.
      2. Other prepositions.
    8. Particles
      1. Conjunctions.
      2. Modifiers.
      3. Polarity particles.
      4. Modal particles.
      5. Intensifiers.
    9. Word formation
      1. Compounding.
      2. Derivation.
        1. Noun.
          1. Noun to noun.
        2. Verb.
          1. Verb to noun.
    10. Syntax.
      1. Word order.
      2. Head position.
      3. Copular verbs.
    11. Onomastics.
      1. Colours.
      2. Sides of world.
      3. Directions.
      4. Body parts.
      5. Kinship.
        1. Relatives from marriage.
        2. Relatives from adoption.


Phonology.

Consonants.


IPA
Spelling
/p t k ʔ/
b d g
/pʰ tʰ kʰ/
p t k
/t͡θ t͡s t͡ɬ t͡ʃ/
dθ ds dl dą
/t͡θʰ t͡sʰ t͡ɬʰ t͡ʃʰ/
tθ ts tl tą
/θ s ɬ ʃ x h/
θ s l ą x h
/m n ŋ/
m n ng
/mʰ nʰ ŋʰ/
mh nh ngh
/ɾ/
r
/j w/
y w

Vowels.


Low tone
/ì ù/
i u
/ə̀/
e
/à/
a
High tone
/í ú/
í ú
/ə́/
é
/á/
á

Phonotactics.

CVC

C = any consonant
V = any vowel

Nouns.

Morphemes.

[Possessor + Root + Root's extension + (Class + Number)]

Class and number.


Animate
Singular
-wá
gaθwá
'hand'
Plural
-té
gaθté
'hands'
Inanimate
-né
genké ← *gek-né
'stone(s)'

Possessor.

Alienable.



Singular
Plural
1.
mi-
mikatané
'my house'
ngi-
ngikatané
'our house'
2.
θe-
θekatané
'thy house'
se-
sekatané
'your house'
3.
i-
ikatané
'his/her/its house'
li-
likatané
'their house'

Unalienable.



Singular
Plural
1.
min-
minkatané
'my hand'
ngin-
nginkatané
'our hand'
2.
θen-
θenkatané
'thy hand'
sen-
senkatané
'your hand'
3.
in-
inkatané
'his/her/its hand'
lin-
linkatané
'their hand'

Verbs.

Morphemes.

 [Instrumentality + Object + Subject + (Root + Voice) + Root's extension(s) + Tense + Aspect + Evidentiality + Affirmativity]

Instrumentality.

mangém - I am speaking

ba-
'with teeth, chin, mouth'
bamangém
[pàmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with mouth'
sú-
'with heat, fire'
súmangém
[súmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with fire'
ma-
'with the hand'
mamangém
[màmaŋə́m̀]
'I am speaking with hand'
tąe-
'with the nose, lips, front'
tąemangém
[t͡ʃʰə̀màŋə́m]
'I am speaking with front'
nú-
'verbally'
númangém
[númàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with words'
tah-
'with the buttocks, rear'
tahmangém
[tàhmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with the buttocks'
geh-
'with cold'
gehmangém
[kə̀hmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with cold'
pah-
'with the foot, in a violent motion'
pahmangém
[pʰàhmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with the foot'
bí-
'with the mind, mental activity'
bímangém
[pímàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with the mind'
du-
'with the finger'
dumangém
[tùmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with the finger'
tθé-
'with the head'
tθémangém
[t͡θʰə́màŋə́m]
'I am speaking with the head'
láh-
'with the body'
láhmangém
[láhmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with the body'
θí-
'with swinging motion'
θímangém
[θímàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with swinging motion'
wé-
'with water'
wémangém
[wə́màŋə́m]
'I am speaking with water'
ngu-
'with pulling, pushing'
ngumangém
[ŋùmàŋə́m]
'I am speaking with pulling, pushing'

Object.



Singular
Plural
1.
ma-
me
man-
us
2.
ąí-
thee
tąa-
you
3.
lu-
him/her/it
wi-
them

Subject.



Singular
Plural
1.
mé-
I
mén-
we
2.
sú-
thou
tsa-
you
3.
ni-
he/she/it
ne-
they

Voice.



Performative
Causative
1. Active
-
-yád
[-ját]
to see
-ra-
-yárad
[-jáɾàt]
to show
2. Reflexive
-sí-
-yásíd
[-jásít]
to see self
-ngi-
-yángid
[-jáŋìt]
to shown self
3. Cooperative
-lé-
-yáléd
[-jálə́t]
to see together
-mú-
-yámúd
[-jámút]
to show together
4. Reciprocal
-kú-
-yákúd
[-jákʰút]
to see mutually
-tsá-
-yátsád
[-ját͡sʰát]
to show mutually

Root's extensions.

Root's extensions are postpositions and secondary verbs (also modal particles).


Tense.


Past remote
-ál-
-yádál
[-játáɬ]
to see (long ago)
Past proper
-ár-
-yádár
[-játáɾ]
to see (recently)
Non-past
-
-yád
[-ját]
to see

Aspect.


Imperfective
-
-yád
[-ját]
to see (action is persisting)
Iterative
-yá-
-yádyá
[-játjá]
to see many times
Perfective
-tu
-yádtu
[-játtʰù]
to see (action is performed)

Evidentiality.


Direct
-a
-yáda
[-játà]
to see
[speaker has direct evidence, probably visual]
Nonvisual
-gi
-yádgi
[-játkì]
to see
[speaker felt the sensation]
Inferential
-rú
-yádrú
[-játɾú]
to see
[speaker saw circumstantial evidence]
Reportative
-mi
-yádmi
[-játmì]
to see
[speaker is reporting what was told]

Affirmativity.


Affirmative
-
-yád
[-ját]
to see
Negative
-né
-yádné
[-játnə́]
not to see

Gerund.


le-...-(n)é
leyándé [ɬə̀jántə́]
seeing

Adjectives and adverbs.



Numerals.

Cardinal numerals.


1.
ér [ə́ɾ]
2.
ruá [ɾùʔá]
3.
θana [θànà]
4.
dlanga [t͡ɬàŋà]
5.
ténge [tʰə́ŋə́]
6.
téngér [tʰə́ŋə́ɾ]
7.
téngruá [tʰə́ŋɾùʔá]
8.
téngθana [tʰə́ŋθànà]
9.
téngdlanga [tʰə́ŋt͡ɬàŋà]
10.
kárma [kʰáɾmà]
11.
kárma ér [kʰáɾmà ə́ɾ]
20.
getlem [kə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m]
21.
getlem ér [kə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m ə́ɾ]
100.
tenggetlem [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m]
101.
tenggetlem ér [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m ə́ɾ]
120.
tenggetlem getlem [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m kə̀t͡ɬə̀m]
121.
tenggetlem getlem ér [tʰə̀ŋkə̀t͡ɬʰə̀m kə̀t͡ɬə̀m ə́ɾ]
200.
tértem [tʰə́ɾtʰə̀m]
1.000.
tengtértem [tʰə́ŋtʰə́ɾtʰə̀m]
10.000.
miryás [mìɾjás]
100.000.
kárma miryás [kʰáɾmà mìɾjás]

Derived numerals.



Ordinal
Distributive
Multiplicative
Ranking
Adverbial
1.
értá
[ə́ɾtʰá]
érér
[ə́ɾə́ɾ]
érkadą
[ə́ɾkʰàt͡ʃ]
érmín
[ə́ɾmín]
érku
[ə́ɾkʰù]

Pronouns.

Personal pronouns.



Singular
Plural
1.

mén
2.

tsa
3.
Animate
niwá
newá
Inanimate
ni
ne

Demonstrative pronouns.



Definite proper Definite distant Indefinite
Place
here
there ąémi
somewhere
Source adsíd
from here addéd
from there adąémid
from somewhere
Purpose direction dasíd
to here dadéd
to there, so far daąémid
to somewhere
Path síku
this way déku
that way ąémiku
some way
Time sítlam
now détlam
then ąémitlam
anywhere
Method síxad
in this way déxad
in that way ąémixad
in some way
Quantity sílah
so much
Qualify símak
like this here démak
like that ąémimak
like something
Reason sínyár (← *sí-ni-ár)
for this reason dényár
for that reason ąémiyár
for some reason

Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns.



Interrogative / Relative Indefinite Unlimited
Animate being kas
who ? which ? kasmi
someone kaskuli
anyone
Inanimate object kay
what ? which ? kaymi
something kaykuli
anything
Place kéy
where ? kéymi
somewhere kéykuli
anywhere
Source adkad
whence ? adkadmi
from somewhere adkadkuli
from anywhere
Purpose direction dakad
whither ? dakadmi
to somewhere dakadkuli
to anywhere
Path kamiku
which way ? kamikumi
via some way kamikukuli
via any way
Time katlam
when ? katlammi
once katlamkuli
ever
Method kaxad
how ? kaxandi (← *kaxad-mi)
somehow kaxadkuli
anyhow
Quantity kalah
how much ? kalahmi
somehow much kalahkuli
anyhow much
Qualify kamak
which one ? kamanki (← *kamak-mi)
some kamakkuli
any
Reason kanyár
why ?

Negative, universal and alternative pronouns.



Negative Universal Alternative
Animate being nekas
nobody kaswad
every kasdi
anyone else
Inanimate object nekay
nothing mahwad
every, all kaydi
anything else
Place nekéy
nowhere mahed
everywhere kéydi
elswhere
Source adnekad
from nowhere admahed
from everywhere adkéydi
from elswhere
Purpose direction danekad
to nowhere damahed
to everywhere dakéydi
to elswhere
Path nekamiku
through no way mahedku
through all ways kamikudi
which way else
Time nekatlam
never mahtlam
always katlamkudi
when else
Method nekaxad
nohow mahxad
in all methods kaxaddi
otherwise
Quantity nekalah
nothing mahkalah
otherwise than so many
Quality nekamak
neuter, indistinct mahmak
any kamakdi
other

Postpositions.

Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals.


es [ə̀s]
in, inside
ades [ʔàtə̀s]
from inside
daes [tàʔə̀s]
to inside
xa [xà]
on
adxa [ʔàtxà]
from on
daax [tàʔàx]
to on
ngúm [ŋúm]
above
adngúm [ʔàtŋúm]
from above
dangúm [dàŋúm]
to above
tsug [t͡sʰùk]
under
adtsug [àtt͡sùk]
from under
datsug [tàt͡sʰùk]
to under
bek [pə̀kʰ]
beside
adbek [ʔàtpə̀kʰ]
from beside
dabek [tàpə̀kʰ]
to beside
úl [ʔúɬ]
away
adúl [àtúɬ]
from away
daúl [tàʔúɬ]
to away
múres [múɾə̀s]
between
admúres [àtmúɾə̀s]
from between
damúres [tàmúɾə̀s]
to between
káh [kʰáh]
behind
adkáh [ʔàtkʰáh]
from behind
dakáh [tàkʰáh]
to behind
ux [ʔùx]
out
adux [ʔàtùx]
from out
daux [tàʔùx]
to out
tsíng [t͡sʰíŋ]
around
adtsíng [ʔàtt͡sʰíŋ]
from around
datsíng [tàt͡sʰíŋ]
to around
méd [mə́t]
before, opposite to
adméd [ʔàtmə́t]
from before, from opposite to
daméd [tàmə́t]
to before, to opposite to
tlámes [t͡ɬʰámə̀s]
during, in time of
adtlámes [ʔàtt͡ɬʰámə̀s]
from time of
datlámes [tàt͡ɬámə̀s]
to time of
pu [pʰù]
after
adpu [ʔàtpʰù]
from after
dapu [tàpʰù]
to after

Other prepositions.


Companion, attributive object sa [sà]
with
Instrument
ná [ná]
by
Destiny
ár [ʔáɾ]
for
Purpose
da [tà]
to
Source
ad [ʔàt]
from
Lack ber [pə̀ɾ]
without
Alternative túles [túɬə̀s]
instead
Contrary axméd [ʔàxmə̀t]
against
Resistance súm [súm]
despite, though
Stylization nghán [ŋʰán]
along to, according to

Particles

Conjunctions.


Paratactical conjunctions
Copulative ke [kʰə̀]
and
Conjunctive dla [t͡ɬà]
also
Disjunctive úm [úm]
or
Contrastive, exceptional xá [xá]
but
Consequentive ná [ná]
so

Hypotactical conjunctions
nhit [nʰìtʰ]
to, for
θuru [θùɾù]
althought
puta [pʰùtʰà]
because
pi [pʰì]
if
etla [ʔə̀t͡ɬà]
that, providing

Modifiers.


Restrictive érke [ə́ɾkʰə̀]
only
Additive érye [ə́ɾjə̀]
yet

Polarity particles.


Affirmative da [tà]
yes
Negative ne [nə̀]
no

Modal particles.


Conditional
watl [wàt͡ɬʰ]
would
Potentional
wák [wákʰ]
may
Eventive
méw [mə́w]
may would
Jussive
tung [tʰùŋ]
should
Imperative
á [á]
!
Prohibitive
ná [ná]

Precative
lúk [ɬúkʰ]
request, please
Desiderative
kéda [kʰə́tà]
want
Hypothetical
rú [ɾú]
perhaps
Dubitative
mís [mís]

Obligative
nhek [nʰə̀kʰ]
must
Permissive
ąay [ʃàj]
have
Conative tlug [t͡ɬʰùk]
try
Necessitative
tuk [tʰùkʰ]
need
Interrogative
θá [θá]
?

Intensifiers.


Weak

Balanced
-
Strong


Word formation

Compounding.


Derivation.

Noun.

Noun to noun.

Diminutive -kúl-
ąánewá [ʃánə̀wá] → ąánkúlwá [ʃáŋkúlwá]
daughter → little daughter
Augmentative -dag-
burné [pùɾnə́] → burdangé [pùɾtàŋə́]
mountain → grand mountain
Contradiction ne-
mánuwá [mánùwá] → nemánuwá [nə̀mánùwá]
human → non-human
Similarity -andu-
pukuwá [pʰùkʰùwá] → pukanduwá [pʰùkʰàntùwá]
tree → pseudo-tree
Half puru-
kuryawá [kʰuɾjàwá] → purukuryawá [pʰùɾùkʰùɾyàwá]
dog → half-dog
Relational abstract -ansé
hagawá [hàkàwá] → hagansé [hàkànsə́]
brother → brotherhood
Related person -tąewá
mugewá → mugtąewá [mùkt͡ʃʰə̀wá]
cow → cowman
Related object
-(e)ké
lemxé [ɬə̀mxə́] → lemxeké [ɬə̀mxə̀kʰə́]
meat → muscle
Place -amé
tékwá [tʰə̀kʰwá] → tékamé [tʰə́kʰàmə́]
fire → campfire
Collective
-wéhé
galené [kàɬə̀nə́] → galewehé [kàɬə̀wə̀hə́]
bone → skeleton

Verb.

Verb to noun.
Agentive -tąewá
-kuą [-kʰùʃ] → kuątąewá [kʰùʃt͡ʃʰə̀wá]
(to) shoot → shooter
Experiencer, adressee -adθwá
-túts [-tʰút͡sʰ] → tútsadθwá [tʰút͡sʰàt͡θwá]
(to) teach → learner
Result -té
-bax [-pàx] → baxté [pàxtə́]
(to) fall → (a) fall
Instance -yé
-múl [-múɬ] → múlyé [múɬjə́]
(to) speak → speech
Instrument -ké
-bi [-pì] → biké [pìkʰə́]
(to) beat → hammer
Place -amé
-gal [-kàɬ] → galamé [kàɬàmə́]
(to) kill → slaughterhouse

Syntax.

Word order.

Main word order is SOV, SOVInt, SOVNeg.

Head position.

The language is right-headed.

Copular verbs.


Translative -tá [-tʰá]
became
Essive -ké [-kʰə́]
be
Excessive -dsén [-t͡sə́n]
cease to be

Onomastics.

Colours.


-ąáy-
[-ʃáj-]
light
-dum-
[-tùm-]
dark
-baya-
[-pàjà-]
white
-melu-
[-mə̀ɬù-]
black
-karna-
[-kʰàɾnà-]
red
-tserwi-
[-t͡sʰə̀ɾwì-]
reddish
-rutąi-
[-ɾùt͡ʃʰì-]
pink
-sandu-
[-sàntù-]
blue
-gelu-
[-kə̀ɬù-]
green
-ladya-
[-ɬàtjà-]
yellow
-balta-
[-pàɬtʰà-]
golden
-gutlu-
[-kùt͡ɬù-]
silver
-aruwa-
[-ʔàɾùwà-]
orange
-dθunka-
[-t͡θùŋkà-]
grey
-bugra-
[-pùkɾà-]
brown
-sepír-
[-sə̀pʰíɾ-]
violet
-tatsya-
[-tʰàt͡sʰjà-]
navy blue
-tsíni-
[-t͡sʰínì-]
beige

Sides of world.


Direct sides
North black meluyé
South white bayayé
East red karnayé
West gold baltayé
Indirect sides
Northeast red black lekarnané imeluyé
Northwest golden black lebaltané imeluyé
Southeast red white lekarnané ibayayé
Southwest golden white lebaltané ibayayé

Directions.


tapwá
side
mahté
right
néhpé
left
síndé (← *síd-né)
front
kubné
back
galwá
top
dθahné
bottom
kerdé
center, middle, heart

Body parts.


kubwá [kʰùpwá]
body
ąaxawá [ʃàxàwá]
blood
xipwá [xìpʰwá]
skin
lemxé [ɬə̀mxə́]
meat
lemxeké [ɬə̀mxə̀kə́]
muscle
galené [kàɬə̀nə́]
bone
gudgé [kùtkə́]
vertebra
pangé [pʰàŋə́]
spine
galewehé [kàɬə̀wə̀hə́] skeleton
galwá [kàlwá]
head
pulwá [pʰùlwá]
hair
agwá [ʔàkwá]
eye
tθuré [t͡θʰùɾə́]
ear
wáxé [wáxə́]
moustache
axtewá [ʔaxtʰə̀wá]
mouth
pélwá [pʰə́lwá]
lip
sampé [sàmpʰə́]
beard
buruné [pùɾùnə́]
chin
litąwá [lìt͡ʃʰwá]
cheek
tąexwá [t͡ʃʰə̀xwá]
mandible
manké [màŋkə́]
upper jaw
tsimpé [t͡sʰìmpə́]
tooth
tlakwá [t͡ɬʰàkʰwá]
gum
gelné [kə̀ɬnə́]
tusk
aprewá [ʔàpʰɾə̀wá]
eyebrow
yatąwá [jàt͡ʃʰwá]
front neck
kanké [kàŋkə́]
back neck
gurdé [kuɾtə́]
throat
rahwá [ɾàhwá]
larynx
nháwwá [nʰáwwá]
tongue
halté [hàɬtə́]
palate
gulgé [kùɬkə́]
uvula
ringhwá [ɾìŋʰwá]
vein
tuntuwá [tʰùntʰùwá]
artery
kerdé [kʰə̀ɾtə́]
heart
letąé [ɬə̀t͡ʃʰə́]
lung
bulbé [pùɬpə́]
belly
matąké [màt͡ʃʰkʰə́]
stomach
nhergé [nʰə̀ɾkə́]
kidney
palpé [pʰàɬpʰə́]
spleen
wadré [wàtɾə́]
liver
lugé [ɬùkə́]
gall
timbé [tʰìmpə́]
rib
yuąké [jùʃkʰə́]
intestine
tθárké [t͡θʰáɾkʰə́]
skull
mhayné [mʰàjnə́]
brain
gaθwá [kàθwá]
hand
rihmé [ɾìhmə́]
arm, shoulder
tąarmé [t͡ʃʰàɾmə́]
forearm
delmé [tə̀ɬmə̀]
hand palm
kundé [kʰùntə́]
fist
pinté [pʰìntʰə́]
finger
busuké [pùsùkʰə́]
nail
tsurké [t̆͡sʰuɾkʰə́]
claw
genhé [kə̀nʰə́]
knee
mhudé [mʰùtə́]
elbow
relké [ɾə̀ɬkʰə́]
wrist
kinhé [kʰìnʰə́]
nose
tąépé [t͡ʃʰə́pʰə́]
back
tupé [tʰùpʰə́]
foot
penté [pʰə̀ntʰə́]
heel
kulmé [kʰùɬmə́]
gullet
reypé [ɾə̀jpʰə́]
midriff

Kinship.


nghámmá [ŋʰámá]
family
abaté
parents
ammá
mother
abbá
father
tąendewá
child
súlwá
son
ąánewá daughter
gignewéhé
sibling
hagawá
brother
tθesewá
sister
dθúkwá
cousin
dąanghwá
distant relative
úwwá
father's / mother's brother
táwwá
father's / mother's sister
abaté ligignewéhé
father's / mother's sibling
hagasúlwá
brother's / sister's son
hagaąánewá
brother's / sister's daughter
gignewéhétąendewá
sibling's child
médabaté
grandparents
médammá
grandmother
médabbá
grandfather
médmédammá
great grandmother
médmédabbá
great grandfather
médtąendewá
grandchild
médsúlwá
grandson
médąánewá
granddaughter
médmédtąendewá
great grandchild
médmédsúlwá
great grandson
médmédąánewá
great granddaughter
adąinwá
grandfather's  / grandmother's brother
tutserwá
grandfather's / grandmother's sister
adąingignewéhé grandfather's / grandmother's sibling
amatwá
ancestor from maternal line
abatwá
ancestor from fathernal line
kumwá
common ancestor
xatąerwéhé
progeny

Relatives from marriage.


gunsansé
marriage
gunghámmá family from wife's side
gunwá
wife
haryewá
husband
gunsawá
spouse
abbasawá
father-in-law
ammasawá
mother-in-law
abasaté
parents-in-law
súlsawá
son-in-law
ąánesawá
daughter-in-law
tąendesawá
child-in-law
hagasawá
brother-in-law
tθesesawá
sister-in-law
gignesawéhé sibling-in-law
gundąanghwá wife's distant relative
haryedąanghwá husband's distant relative
gunhagagunwá
wife brother's wife
guntθeseharyewá
wife sister's husband
hagagunharyegunwá
husband brother's wife
haryetθeseharyewá
husband sister's husband

Relatives from adoption.


pulabbaswá
stepfather
pulammaswá
stepmother
pulabasaté
stepparents
pulhagasá
stepbrother
pultθesesawá
stepsister
pulgignesawéhé
stepsibling
pultąendesawá
stepchild
pulxatąerwéhé adopted progeny









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