Phonology Consonants /p t k/ p t k /b d g/ bb dd gg /t͡s t͡ʃ/ c ch /d͡z d͡ʒ/ dz j /ɸ θ s ʃ x/ f th s sh h /β ð z ʒ ɣ/ b d z zh g /m n ŋ/ m n ng /r l/ r l /j w/ y w Vowels /i u/ i u /e o/ e o /ɛ ɔ/ è ò /a/ a Diphthongs /ai ei ɛi oi ɔi ui/ ai ei èi oi òi ui /au eu ɛu ou ɔu iu/ au eu èu ou òu iu /ae ie oe ue/ ae ie oe ue /aɛ iɛ ɔɛ uɛ/ aè iè òè uè /ao eo io uo/ ao eo io uo /aɔ ɛɔ iɔ uɔ/ aò èò iò uò /ea ɛa ia oa ɔa ua/ ea èa ia oa òa ua Phonotactics CVC Processes and sound changes 1. Lenition (I. Phase): p t k → b d g V_V, V_[rlmn]V [+plosive tenuis₁] + [+plosive tenuis₂] → [plosive voiced₁] + [plosive voiced₂] b d g → β ð ɣ (all non-geminated and in non-final position in consonantal cluster voiced plosives) bb dd gg → b d g 2. Metathesis of liquids in clusters: /Cr Cl Cn Cm Cŋ/ → /rC lC nC mC ŋC/ V_V 3. Assimilation of nasal consonants to following consonants: /n ŋ/ + labial consonant → m /m ŋ/ + alveolar consonant → n /m n/ + velar consonant → ŋ 4. Fricatization of plosives and affricates before fricatives t t͡s + sibilant → ss d d͡z + sibilant → zz t t͡ʃ + sibilant → ʃʃ ss d d͡ʒ + sibilant → ʒʒ zz 5. Assimilation of dental and alveolar fricatives to each other: sθ zð → θθ ðð → θ ð θs ðz → ss zz 6. Merger of /s z/ with a plosive before /r l m n ŋ/, word-initially and word-finally (only in loanwords): sp zb → ɸ β st zd → θ ð sk zg → x ɣ 7. Breaking of triconsonantal clusters with /r l m n ŋ/ as third consonant (only in loanwords): CCR → CCòR 8. Simplification of clusters with nasal as first element and plosive/affricate/fricative as second after diphthongs with /i u/ as second element: shaino/shaine 'light (adj.)' + fuore 'feather' → shaibuore 'light feather' 9. Breaking of long vowels (only in loanwords): ɒː → ɔ̯a aː → ɛ̯a eː → i̯ɛ iː → i̯e oː → u̯ɔ uː → u̯o 10. Breaking of high vowels before /r l m n ŋ/ (also in loanwords): a). Under accent: i u → ie uo b). Other positions i u → ai au The change is blocked by some diphthongs. 11. Rising of non-high vowels before /r l m n ŋ/ (also in loanwords): e o → i u ɛ ɔ → e o a → ɔ The change is blocked by some diphthongs. Allophony 1. Palatalization of all consonants before front vowels /i e ɛ/. 2. Labialization of all consonants before back vowels /u o ɔ/. 3. Voiced plosives in word-final position are pronounced as partially voiced. Accent Stress accent on penultimate syllable. Nouns Gender Masculine -o òrgo 'wolf' mano 'man, male human' riodo 'word' Feminine -e òrge 'she-wolf' mane 'woman, female human' haure 'blood' Number Singular - mòno 'man' Dual -sh mònosh 'two men' Plural -i mònoi 'men' Case 1. Nominative - òrgo 'wolf' 2. Genitive -r/-ar òrgur 'of wolf' 3. Instrumental -m/-am òrgum 'with/by wolf' Demonstrative particles Indefinite na òrgo 'a wolf' Definite proper sa òrgo 'this wolf' Definite distant la òrgo 'that wolf' Verbs Voice Active - did- 'to see' Passive -me- dimed- 'to be seen' Causative -ra- dirad- 'to show' Passive-Causative -be- dibed- 'to be shown' Tense Past remote -la- dilda- 'to see long ago' Past proper -na- dinda- 'to see recently' Present - did- 'to see (in present)' Future proper -sa- dicca- (from *did-sa-) 'will to see soon' Future remote -sha- dichcha- (from *did-sha-) 'will to see in remote future' Aspect Imperfective - did- 'to see (action is non-performed)' Iterative -ba- didba- 'to see many times' Perfective -ta- ditta- 'to see (action is performed)' Perfective (formed from dental roots) -az- guotazòne 'puting in order' Person Singular Plural 1. -(a)yò -(ò)mè 2. -(a)h -(a)gè 3. -0 -(t)è Non-finite forms Infinite -(a)s Gerund -(ò)ne Adjectival participle -(a)ko/-(a)ke Adverbial participle -(a)ka In the language exist two classes of gerunds. Difference between the two classes is to distinguish in the formation of aspects. 1. normal root's endings - perine 'denying, negating' (imperfective) : peretòne 'the same' (perfective) 2. root's ending on dental consonant -az- guotòne 'series, collection' (perfective) : guotazòne 'puting in order' Adjectives Positive - bosh- 'good' Comparative -iòr- boshiòr- 'better' Superlative -tòm- boshtòm- 'best' Adverbs Positive - bosha 'well' Comparative -yar- boshiòra 'better' Superlative -tam- boshtòma 'best' Numerals 1. or 2. nui 3. sòlai 4. haskui 5. kuònti 6. thorhi 7. herni 8. maodi 9. maègen 10. taisen 11. taisen or 20. nui taisen 21. nui taisen or 100. gaslai 101. gaslai or 110. gaslai taisen 111. gaslai taisen or 120. gaslai nui taisen 121. gaslai nui taisen or 1.000. ardai 10.000. taisen ardai 100.000. gaslai ardai 1.000.000. tuarai Ordinal -k- org- 'first' Distributive -ma- nuima- 'every second' Multiple -lain- orlain- 'singular' Multiplicative -rind- nuirind- 'double' Rankinging -kèrt- orkèrt- 'corking' Pronouns Personal pronouns Singular Dual Plural 1. mè mèsh mèi 2. suo sush sui 3. òn ònash òni Possessive pronouns Singular Dual Plural 1. mèh- unk- mas- 2. suoh- sha- thas- 3. ònh- ònsh- òns- Correlative pronouns Definite proper demonstrative Place sath 'here' Source èksath 'from here' Purpose direction kèsath 'to here' Path satath 'this way' Time sachai 'now' Method san 'in this way' Quantity sòra 'so much' Qualify sòma 'like this here' Reason sautu 'for this reason' Definite distant demonstrative Place tath 'there' Source ègdath 'from there' Purpose direction kètath 'to there, so far' Path tatath 'that way' Time tachai 'then' Method tan 'in that way' Qualify tòma 'like that' Reason tautu 'for that reason' Indefinite demonstrative Place nath 'somewhere' Source ègnath 'from somewhere' Purpose direction kènath 'to somewhere' Path natath 'some way' Method nan 'in some way' Qualify nòma 'like something' Reason nautu 'for some reason' Interrogative / Relative Human being ka 'who ? which ?' Inanimate object or Non-Human being ca 'what ? which ?' Place kath 'where ?' Source èggath 'whence ?' Purpose direction kègath 'whither ?' Path katath 'which way ?' Time kachai 'when ?' Method kòn 'how ?' Quantity kòra 'how much ?' Qualify kòma 'which one ?' Reason kautu 'why ?' Indefinite Human being kashi 'someone' Inanimate object or Non-Human being cashi 'something' Place kashith 'somewhere' Source èggashith 'from somewhere' Purpose direction kèkashith 'to somewhere' Path kashtath 'via some way' Time kashchai 'once' Method kashin 'somehow' Quantity kashòra 'somehow much' Qualify kashutu 'some' Unlimited Human being mokashi 'anyone' Inanimate object or Non-Human being mocashi 'anything' Place mokashith 'anywhere' Source ègmokashith 'from anywhere' Purpose direction kèmokashith 'to anywhere' Path mokashtath 'via any way' Time mokashchai 'ever' Method mokashin 'anyhow' Quantity mokashòra 'anyhow much' Qualify mokashutu 'any' Negative Human being neka 'nobody' Inanimate object or Non-Human being neca 'nothing' Place nekath 'nowhere' Source ègnekath 'from nowhere' Purpose direction kènekath 'to nowhere' Path nekatath 'no way' Time nekachai 'never' Method nekòn 'nohow' Quantity nekòra 'nothing' Qualify nekautu 'neuter, indistinct' Universal Human being maoka 'every' Inanimate object or Non-Human being mao 'every, all' Place maoth 'everywhere' Source ègmaoth 'from everywhere' Purpose direction kèmaoth 'to everywhere' Path maotath 'through all ways' Time maochai 'always' Method maon 'in all methods' Quantity maòra 'otherwise than so many' Qualify maotu 'any' Alternative Human being kayasha 'anyone else' Inanimate object or Non-Human being cayasha 'anything else' Place kayashath 'elswhere' Source èggayashath 'from elswhere' Purpose direction kèkayashath 'to elswhere' Path kayashatath 'which way else' Time kayashachai 'when else' Method kayashòn 'otherwise' Qualify yashtu 'other' Reflexive, Reciprocal and Cooperative pronouns Reflexive sha Reciprocal nosh Cooperative not shah- reflexive possessive pronoun Prepositions Spatials and directionals Spatial position is described by adding of a nominals in Instrumental case, and direction by adding Genitive. no - in, inside ta - on bòn - above ga - under kèshi - beside bah - away diaka - between the - behind ya - out nopala - around tongo - before, opposite to nochale - during, in time of sho - after kè - to bi - towards èh - from Other prepositions er - for (Genitive) de - with (Instrumental) ina - in time, while (Instrumental) fa - by (Genitive) ro - through, across (Genitive) ba - without (Genitive) tathama - instead (Genitive) biongo - against (Genitive) gocha - despite, though (Genitive) èhòlo - along to, according to (Genitive) òn - like (all cases) fò - as (all cases) Particles Paratactical conjunctions Copulative ò 'and' Conjunctive abe 'also' Disjunctive kah 'or' Contrastive, exceptional ai 'but' Consequentive ri 'so' Comparative koi 'than' Resultative gi 'that' Hypotactical conjunctions bu - to, for basha - althought dah - because ao - if be - that, providing Modifiers. Restrictive òra 'only' Additive eske 'yet' Intensifiers (for adjectives and adverbs) Weak ce bosh- 'little/some/weakly good' Strong za bosh- 'very good' Polarity particles. Affirmative yò 'yes' Negative ne 'no' Modal particles Imperative a ! Conditional bai to would Potentional nin to might Eventive chah to could Obligative hel to must Necessitative net to need Jussive wen to should Optative mah to wish Desiderative kais to want Dubitative kou to doubt Hypothetical mie maybe, perhaps Permissive tol to let, to permit Precative pòri to request, to please, to ask Abilitive ioch to can Originative tas to begin Probabilative nak probably Inchoative gun to start, to begin Conative bain to try Terminative naeth to end, to finnish Volitional particle Volition iush cheriò 'I am listenning (carefully)' Evidential particles Visual - cherah 'Thou art hearing (speaker has direct evidence, probably visual)' Non-Visual zahi cherah 'supposedly Thou art hearing (speaker felt sensation)' Inferential nohi cherah 'probably Thou art hearing (speaker saw circumstantial evidence)' Syntax Word order SOV IntSOV SONegV Head position The language is head-final. Copular verbs Translative we-s 'to become' Essive hi-s 'to be' Excessive tha-s 'cease to exist' Noun case in using 1. Nominative (-Ø) - basal (lexical) form, it is naming a things - subject of intransitive clauses - agent of transitive clauses - donor of ditransitive clauses 2. Genitive (-r) - patient of transitive clause - recipient of ditransitive clause - possessor - directions - used with locative prepositions means locative directions - used with various prepositions - cause, reason (with ablatival preposition èh) 3. Instrumental (-m) - tool, instrument - way, method - accompaniament - theme of ditransitive clause - predicative form - used with locative prepositions means location Anticausative Anticausative is created with reflexive pronoun or with passive voice. Impersonal construction This construction is created with adding adverbial ending to verbal stem. wes {we-} 'to become' → wea Word Formation Derivation Noun to noun Diminutive -in- bòste 'star' → bòstiene 'little star' Augmentative -add- taòbe 'mountain' → taòbadde 'grand mountain' Contradiction ne- mòno 'man' → nemòno 'non-man, non-human being' Similarity -aesh- òrie 'sun' → òriaeshe 'pseudo-sun' Half fol- òrgo 'wolf' → folòrgo 'half-wolf, wolf-dog (a kind of dog)' Related abstract I -(a)ste mòno 'man' → mònaste 'humanity' Related abstract II -(a)de miero 'king' → mierade 'kingdom' Related person -(a)ch- kuobe 'cow' → kuobacho/kuobache 'cowman, cattle grazer' Proffesion -mò-r- shòrgge 'slaughter' → shòrggamòro 'slaughterman, butcher' Related object -im- lieche 'meat' → liechimo 'muscle' Place -(a)bate kèto 'fire' → kètabate 'campfire' Collection of living beings -(ò)rge fiemo 'bird' → fiemòrge 'fowl' Collection of inanimate things -(ò)le fuore 'feather' → fuoròle 'feathers' Part, fragment of smth -(ò)mbe baire 'war' → bairòmbe 'war episode' Home, house -Vr-gusho themo 'god, deity' → thengusho (← *themorgusho) 'church, temple' Collabourer, participant de- gushach- 'inmate' → degushach- 'co-inmate' Whole, all mao- did- 'to see' → maodinde (← *mao-did-me) 'panorama' Follower fòr- baire 'war' → fòrbairji 'pro-war' Antagonist bi- baire 'war' → bibaire 'anti-war' State -abbe òrgo 'wolf' → òrgabbe 'land of wolves' Science -Vr-bòne kielo 'language' → kielorbòne 'linguistics' Craft, art -(a)cha-ste zhorge 'gold' → zhorgachaste 'goldsmiths' Noun to adjective Originative -(a)k- dòngo 'sky' → dòngak- 'celestial' Similaritive -aesh-k- perso 'horse' → persaeshk- 'equine' Feature -(a)t- zhieho 'hair' → zhiehat- 'hairy' Lack ne- tuodo 'tooth' → netuod- 'toothless' Noun to verb State or process -eh- Ruomake 'Roman' → Ruomakehiò 'I am romanizing' Verb to verb Opposite ga- pioras 'to create' → gapioras 'to destroy' Reaction zo- abbas 'to hit, to strike, to beat' → zoabbas 'to repel attack' Inside no- abbas 'to hit, to strike, to beat' → noabbas 'to stick, to pierce' Outside bah- abbas 'to hit, to strike, to beat' → bahabbas 'to knock out' Again re- abbas 'to hit, to strike, to beat' → reabbas 'to bounce, to retrieve' Gradual kor- sèthas 'to move' → korsèthas 'to move gradually' Intensive zè- guilas 'to kill' → zèguilas 'to murder' Pejorative na- abbas 'to hit, to strike, to beat' → naabbas 'to beat (pejoratively)' Verb to noun Agentive -(a)ch- kieles 'to speak' → kielch- 'speaker' Experiencer, adressee -(a)ch- aukes 'to teach self' → aumegjo 'disciple' Animal -e/-o raubas 'to roar' → raubo 'lion' Result -e/-o duomas 'to fall' → duomo 'fall' Instance -re baes 'to war' → baire 'war' Instrument -lo bias 'to beat' → biòlo 'hammer' Place -(a)bate Verb to adjective Potentional -(ò)ng- kielang- 'pronouncable' Resultative -(a)c- didac- 'evident' Feature -(a)t- nedat- 'needed' Compounds biego/biege 'great' + miero 'king' → biengiero 'emperor' mòlge 'milk' + kaebbe 'way, path, road' → mòlgakaebbe 'Milky Way'